Source: Departments of Statistics, Ministry of Planning
Dr. Ung Phyrun
Deputy Director General
State Secretariat for Environment
Cambodia
As a result of its recent unsettled past, natural resource exploitation has not been a
major activity in Cambodia for development or commercial purposes. The evident exception
to this is the accelerated rate of logging since the liberalisation, particularly in the
Khmer Rouge occupied areas of the country. However, the state of internal strife during
the 1970's and 1980's dramatically decreased the exploitation of the resource base.
Consequently, the general state and quality of Cambodia's environment is good. This is
particularly true when compared to neighbouring countries which are more economically
developed, but are also in the midst of various environmental crises.
One of the main consequences of the internal strife of the past over 20
years was the complete destruction of institutions responsible for management of the
country's resources, these include trained personnel, appropriate laws and regulations,
enforcement capability, and government structures for development of environmental
policies and co-ordination necessary for their implementation. Cambodia does not yet have
a complement of environmental policies. But, natural policy development is a protracted
affair which requires extensive dialogue within government. It is a process that entails
the development of legislation and the creation of institutions and supporting structures.
Cambodia is just at the beginning of that process. As a consequence, the nature of
environmental problems, including industrial pollution, gross misapplication of
agricultural inputs, and general over-exploitation of natural resources, is currently less
critical than developing the process by which the issues can be managed. There is,
however, little room for compliance as the development pressures are mounting rapidly. Any
advantage that Cambodia presently enjoys will be rapidly lost unless safeguards are put in
place to allow inevitable economic development while ensuring the sustained quality of the
environment and resource base. On 2 July 1993 the government of the kingdom of Cambodia
created the Ministry of Environment. This was the first major step taken toward the
recognition of the importance of environmental management for the future of Cambodia. The
responsibilities of the Ministry of Environment include: environmental planning, water and
land use management, natural resources protection and conservation, environmental
legislation, environmental impact assessment, environmental education and information and
environmental research and data collection. geography and demography of major
environmental issues.
Geography and Demography
Area
The Kingdom of Cambodia is a small country covering an area of 182,035 km2. It is situated
in South East Asia, south west of the Indochinese peninsula between latitudes 10 degree
and 15 degree north and longitudes 102 degree and 108 degree east. The countries maximum
extent is about 580 km from east to west and 450 km from north to south. Cambodia shares
its 2,438 km border with Thailand (in the west and north), Laos (in the north), Vietnam
(in the east and south east). In the south west Cambodia is bordered by the Gulf of
Thailand.
Topography Topographically, the country is divided into two districts:
The central plains, which form three quarters of the country, mainly consist of the alluvial plains of the Mekong River and the Tonle Sap Basin which are Cambodia's two dominant topographical features. The Mekong River, 4,200 km in length, is the twelfth longest river in the world, starting from the snow melts of the Himalayan mountains in China, passing through Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam before discharging in the south China sea. In Cambodia, the river runs 486 km from the Laos border in the north east to the border with Vietnam in the south. It divides into its two main down-river branches at Phnom Penh, call Bassac and Mekong river. Both rivers form the wide Mekong data starting in south east Cambodia and enlarge further in Vietnam.
The mountainous region, around the central plains, consists of the
Elephant Mountain range and the Kravagne Mountain range in the south west and western
regions, respectively, the Dang Rek Mountain range in the north, adjoining the Koral
Plateau of Thailand. The Rattanakiri Plateau and the Chhlong Highlands are in the east
merging with the central highland of Vietnam. This topographical configuration is the
consequence of particular geological history and has had profound consequences upon the
natural and human histories of the country. The landscape of Cambodia has long provided
Cambodian's with a wealth of resources. The ecological heritage has long ensured a
stability to Cambodian society and culture through the protection of soil, the regulation
of hydrological regimes and the provision of a vast range of natural products.
Population and Demography - Historical Population Changes
Cambodia's demographic profile is directly related to the country's dramatic political
history. In 1970, Cambodia's population was about 7 million with an annual growth rate of
2.4%. In 1980 total population was 6.4 million with an annual growth rate of 0.8%. The
population shortfall in 1980 is attributed to the following factors:
The war during the early 70's generated a mass migration to
Phnom Penh, increasing the capitals population from 500,000 to approximately 2,000,00
persons by 1973. During the Pol Pot Regime (Khmer Rouge) 1975-79, the population was
forced to move into rural areas, leaving Phnom Penh and other main cities empty. Under the
People's Republic of Kampuchea in 1979, the population was allowed to chose their
settlements and the cities were repopulated. The majority did not return to their previous
homes since, due to the war, most families had been separated.
Current Situation
The population of Cambodia is estimated to be 9.3 million in 1993, with a growth rate of
2.8% per annual, or an absolute increase of 250,000 persons per year. A 1980 survey showed
that there were 36 persons per km2 in Cambodia, but density was extremely uneven, as
historically had been the case. In the hilly northern and north eastern provinces there
were only 1-5 persons per km2. In contrast to the density populated south eastern plains
region, has 97-175 persons per km2. Today, Cambodia has a density of about 52 persons per
km2.
Table 1. Population of Cambodia by
gender 1962-1993 (in million)
Source: Departments of Statistics, Ministry of Planning
Overview of Environmental Issues
Agriculture
Land use classification based on aerial photographs taken by the Institute of Forest
Research (IREF 1958) and reported in Tichit 1981, estimated 3 million ha of Cambodia's
territory to be under cultivation and 13.4 ha to be covered by forests. In 1960, Crocker
estimated that 4.5 million ha of land was suitable for agricultural development.
Recently, it has been recorded that approximately 3.8 million ha are cultivated areas and forest areas comprise 12.3 million ha (Mekong secretariat 1991). This suggests that about 0.8 million ha of forest land have been converted to agricultural land since the estimates reported in Tichit and that a large part of the potential agricultural land outlined by Crocker may already have been utilised.
Cambodia is essentially an agricultural country with between 85-90% of the population engaged in farming. However, the soils in Cambodia are generally considered poor (low in phosphate) and agricultural land covers a relatively small area of the country. Unless these areas are carefully managed, a shortage of agricultural land could result in the near future. Agricultural production is also heavily contingent on climatic conditions. Rice production, in particular, is frequently affected seriously by the impact of drought and floods. In recent years Cambodia has experienced prolonged dry seasons followed by months of heavy rains resulting in destructive flash floods.
Crop output is dominated by rice and rubber, however, favourable prospects are believed to exist for the production of other crops such as maize, soybeans, pepper and tobacco. Other factors adversely affecting agricultural productivity are impacts of deforestation (such as soil erosion), inadequate irrigation, lack of fertilisers, and inappropriate land use policies.
Lack of water is cited by many people throughout the country as their greatest problem. The lack of irrigation water means that, in many areas, it is only possible to produce one rice crop per year resulting in food shortages, 2-4 months of the year. Improvement is seriously needed in irrigation facilities.
Increase in the indiscriminate use of fertilisers and pesticides is a growing concern. The use of agriculture inputs has not, as yet. become a problem in Cambodia for a number of reasons. This can be attributed to poor access to recent generations of broad spectrum pesticides and the shortage of foreign exchange to buy them. Today, these constraints are diminishing. Considering the priority of the government to increase food production in order to achieve food security, the increased use of pesticides, and fertilisers in inevitable. If left unmanaged and unregulated, this trend will be responsible for the same problems, associated with the uncontrolled use of pesticides and fertilisers, which have occurred in other countries determined to raise their agriculture production.
Some acutely toxic pesticides, such as Folodol, have already been imported into Cambodia from such countries as Thailand and Vietnam. Since most of the Cambodian farmers are using such pesticides, without any knowledge of their toxicity, this has raised concern over the potential harm to health and environment. Agricultural inputs have also gained access into Cambodia by way of traditional support packages from the donor community. Of course, the Cambodian government is grateful for foreign assistance it receives, but, in each case, donors should also be responsible for the type of commodities they donate. Prior consideration should be given to the potential impact these donations might have on the environment, in light of the absence of regulatory or management framework. Currently there are no laws or regulations to control pesticide use in Cambodia. Such requirements must be established so that the import, storage, selling, packaging and labelling, usage and disposal of pesticides is controlled.
People need to be educated on the use of natural fertilisers and pesticides which, in the majority of cases, are less expensive in terms of health, environment and economy. Integrated pest management (IPM), has already been introduced into the country on a pilot basis and further efforts should be made for research regarding IPM and the use of botanical pesticides in organic farming
Land mines have created a more unusual problem, not just in the
agricultural sector but in the country as a whole. It has been estimated that there are
between six and ten million land mines in Cambodia. Estimates of up to 40% of the arable
lands in Cambodia are mined.
Forests
The forest are central to the livelihood of the Cambodia people and represent Cambodia's
main natural resource. Cambodia, unlike most other countries in the South East Asian
region, is unique in that it has retained most of its natural forest areas. An inventory
conducted by IREF, before 1970, estimated forest cover to be 132,271 km2, that means 73%
of the total Cambodia territory. Interpretation of the 1992 lands imagery, measures the
forest cover to be only 49%. Although no verifiable hard data regarding the rate of
national-wide deforestation in Cambodia exists, it is understood that increased logging
activities, uncontrolled forest fires, increased demand for agricultural land and fuelwood
for charcoal production as well as other domestic usage, will increase the rate of
deforestation and degradation if no affective policy and management plans are established.
As a stop-gap measure, the Cambodian government has decided to extend the moratorium on the export of logs, originally imposed last year. This stands as the strongest policy response possible in the forest sector and will have long term implications for the management and sustainability of the forests. This moratorium provides time to establish a forest management system so that a regulatory body is in place, once the moratorium is lifted. The enforcement of the moratorium is the present problem.
Before the war, forests could be seen in each of the 21 provinces of Cambodia, 6 provinces (Kompong Chhnang, Kampong Speu, Kandal, Prey Veng, Takeo, and Svay Reing) have subsequently lost most of their forests and are experiencing fuelwood supply difficulties. In addition, a significant portion of the flooded forest has disappeared.
In the south east region, the hillsides are almost completely deforested. Soil erosion is an increasing problem. A flash flood in 1992, caused an estimated US$ 150 million in damage to roads, reservoirs and irrigation structures in Central Cambodia. This estimate does not include the many environmental and social costs. These floods have been attributed to watershed degradation and serve to highlight the link between natural resource conservation and economic development.
The mandate for forest management and protection rests formally with the
Department for Forestry within the Ministry of Agriculture. The Ministry of Environment is
involved with forestry issues in several ways. First, it has the authority for the
development and implementation of 23 protected areas in Cambodia, covering some 3.5
million ha, or 19% of the country's land mass. The Ministry of Environment is mandated to
research acceptable and cost effective alternatives to address environmental problems,
whether it is through the application of appropriate technologies or addressing the social
dimensions. The Ministry of Environment intends to examine these issues more closely
regarding reforestation and forest conservation issues since Cambodia does not have
extensive experience with community forestry.
Fisheries
In addition to its hydrological role, the Tonic Sap Lake, together with the flooded forest
surrounding it, represents the heart of Cambodia's fisheries resources. It accounts for
60% of commercial inland production. Fish are extremely important in Cambodia as they
provide around 90% of the protein for the Cambodian people.
The Tonle Sap was once one of the richest inland fishing lakes in the world, but now it is under ecological threat. According the Fisheries Department, sedimentation rate, already high in 1960 (2 cm/year) has reached 4 cm/year. This heavy siltation is being caused by deforestation of the upper reaches of the Tonle Sap watershed and by the gem mining in Western Battambang Province. This is estimated to have reduced the depth of the lake in the dry season from 0.5m in the late 1960's to 0.3 m in 1990. This is adversely affecting the capacity of the Tonle Sap Lake to act as a buffer during the wet season and as the main source of fish for the country. Deposits of silt in the main river channels are negatively affecting fish migration, while the increased siltation of the Great Lake has caused rapid heating of the water resulting in fish mortalities.
Illegal over-fishing, and the progressive destruction of the inundated
forests which serve as spawning., nursery and feeding sites, are two other factors. The
main pressures in the inundated forests are the expansion of agriculture land and the
demand for firewood and charcoal. The inundated forest is said to have been reduced from 1
million ha to 614,000 ha by the late 1960's. According to the Asian Wetland Bureau they
were further reduced to 564,000 ha during the 1980's. The Food and Agricultural
organisation (FAO), 1991 estimates are only 460,000 ha in 1990, while Mekong secretariat
maps 518,900 ha of flooded forest and associated vegetation. Detailed mapping, using
1:25,000 scale aerial photographs, is underway to provide definite information on the
flooded forest cover. A number of reports have identified the reforestation of the
inundated forest as a priority, in order to stabilise the lake ecosystem. There is very
little experience, however, on the technical aspects of inundated forest reforestation,
i.e. species composition, nursery management, and the social context for sustainability.
The Ministry of Environment intends to look at the issue of reforestation of inundated
forest in conjunction with community forestry demonstration project near Phnom Penh.
Ocean and Coastal Resources and Wetlands
The coastal zone and the sea of Cambodia are extremely rich in natural resources. Two
locations, Kampot and Sihanouk Ville, offer excellent beaches and clean water, and
therefore, have a great potential to attract tourists.
Due to a lack of fishing vessels and storage and processing facilities in comparison to the rest of the Gulf of Thailand, where mechanisation of the fishing fleets has led to over-fishing, Cambodian waters have not yet been over exploited. The offshore waters of Cambodia are thought to contain some of the best remaining zones of fish productivity in the region.
The Cambodian coast includes a remarkable mangrove forest. In addition to being a valuable forest and fisheries resource, mangroves provide many ecological support functions, such as shoreline stabilisation and storm protection. They constitute an important economic resource, both at the subsistence and commercial level. Current activities such as land reclamation for shrimp ponds and charcoal production are threatening this valuable ecosystem, the cover of mangrove forest in Cambodia is estimated to be less than 60,000 ha with much of this area in Koh Kong province where an estimated 16,000 ha of mangroves exist. The Ministry of Environment will be collaborating with other competent agencies in the near future to work towards the development of a national policy on mangrove forests and their management. Currently, most of the mangrove forests are already under the protection of the decree Creation and Designation of Protection Areas, signed on 1 November 1993 by King Norodom Sihanouk. In practice, this does not necessarily confer adequate protection to the mangroves in the face of formidable development pressures. A more active presence of the government must be established in the region.
A management plan is also needed for the Tonle Sap and other wetland
areas. To be successful, these plans must be developed and implemented in close
collaboration with the people dependent on these resources for their livelihood. The plan
should delineate preservation, conservation and production zones in order to maximise the
long term benefit of this resource. The government is taking the first steps ,in this
regard, by submitting a report, which will recommend that the Tonle Sap become a world
heritage site.
Biodiversity
Cambodia hosts a rich biodiversity which includes many species of wild animals. Of
particular interest is the Kouprey, endemic wild cattle believed to survive solely in the
undisturbed Cambodian forest. More than 850 species of fish have been recorded from the
lower Mekong River and the Tonle Sap Lake alone. Cambodia's extensive wetlands and lands
provide habitat for migratory birds. A large flock of rare Saros Crane spend the dry
season in the Kandal province and are thought to breed and nest in Preah Vihear Province.
The forest of Cambodia, including the Cadamin Mountains, Kirirum, Rattanakiri and Koh Kong
contain the region's last significant population of tigers, elephants, perhaps rhinoceros,
and other rare endemic species.
International trade in plant and wildlife species, including rare and endangered species, is flourishing across the Cambodian border. Measures must be taken to protect and conserve these resources. They represent part of the world's natural and irreplaceable heritage and have enormous economic and development potential in term of tourism, medicinal usage, and other forms of sustainable use.
Eco- or nature-tourism is a major source of foreign exchange for a
number of countries in the region and there is a great potential for Cambodia, given the
abundance and diversity of pristine areas.
Industry and Waste Management
As yet, Cambodia has very few industries, consequently the impact from industries on the
environment is, to date, minimal. It is entirely possible, however, that the
manufacturing, textile, and light industry sectors will be attracted to Cambodia in the
near future. Presently, there are no governmental guidelines, laws, regulations or
standards to govern the siting, technology or environmental practices of industries. What
we must avoid is accepting into Cambodia the polluting industries that find it
increasingly difficult to base themselves within more regulated countries and wish to take
advantage of this temporary situation in Cambodia.
Associated with the lack of industry and absence of high consumer consumption in Cambodia, waste management is generally not a major problem. However, a notable exception to this is the city of Phnom Penh in which there are over one million people. The total domestic waste for the city amounts to 1,300 m3 per day (an average of 0.5 tons of waste per person per year). Twenty-four garbage trucks have been donated to the city by donor countries, but the efficiency is hampered by a current lack of these trucks.
Influencing the habits of the people through education is equally important in dealing with the problem of increasing amounts of waste. We must provide the population with suitable alternatives to their current methods of waste disposal.
Waste water management in Phnom Penh and other large municipalities is also lacking. The sewage system has not been maintained over the past two decades and is in a state of complete disrepair with 80% of the piping damaged. Drain water mixes with floods in the city, during the rainy season, and the sewers become rapidly clogged.
The rehabilitation of the sewage system and the installation of new treatment plant is a capital intensive exercise. Cost effective alternatives need to be examined. In line with its mandate to promote appropriate technologies, the Ministry of Environment is collaborating with other government departments, and several members of the donor community, to develop an engineered wetland to treat the waste waters of Cambodia's second largest urban centre, Battambang Province. This engineered wetland will treat the effluent for roughly 15,000 people and will have associated income generation activities, i.e. fish ponds, harvest of aquatic vegetation etc. to meet recurrent operating and maintenance cost. It is hoped that this technology can be effectively used in other cities, particularly Phnom Penh, to relieve waste water management problems without resorting initially to conventional treatment plans which, for the moment, are beyond the financial capacity of Cambodia.
Currently, there is no national water management policy that addresses
the multi-sectoral interests of water use. The lack of sufficient water, for both
irrigation purposes and domestic use, is considered to be the most pressing problem in
many areas. A comprehensive water management policy is needed which will rationalise water
used in the areas of agriculture, fisheries, domestic use, hydro power, transportation and
tourism. A proposal has been developed for the co-ordination of water management
activities under a Water Management Authority. Provisionally this has been placed under
the Department of Hydrology within the Ministry of Agriculture.
Air and Noise Pollution
As a little as two years ago there were very few motorcycles, trucks or cars on the roads
of Cambodia. This has changed dramatically and we are now beginning to suffer the same
consequences of rapid development that can be seen in Bangkok, Jakarta and other cities in
Asia, on a lesser scale. The focus of the problem is Phnom Penh where the streets are now
clogged with large numbers of imported, second hand cars and motorcycles, often with
inadequate pollution control devices. Two cycle racing motorcycles without mufflers, a
real nuisance as anyone who knows Bangkok can attest, have made their appearance in Phnom
Penh. The lack of a reliable energy supply in all major municipalities is a serious
problem and has resulted in the widespread use of generators. Inadequate housing for the
generators, and lack of noise baffles, have made a major source of noise pollution.
Environmental Health
The most pressing environmental problems in Cambodia are in the areas of water supply and
sanitation, solid waste management and food safety. Only a small percentage of the
population has access to a safe and reliable supply of water. Sanitation facilities are
inadequate or non-existent. Diarrhoea is one of the leading causes of morbidity and
mortality in children up to 5 years of age. This is largely attributable to poor
environmental sanitation, lack of personal hygiene, inadequate safe water supply and poor
excreta disposal. Other prevalent diseases caused by poor environmental sanitation include
dengue haemorrhagic fever, skin and eye infections and other parasitic infections.
The present solid waste collection and disposal services are not carried out effectively. Open piles of waste, found in the streets of Phnom Penh, are aggravating public health problems. Many cases of diarrhoea and gastro-enteritis can be directly contributed to poor food hygiene. This poor state of food hygiene can be attributed to:
Environmental Education
The formal education sector seeks to work within the school and higher education system and is curriculum oriented. The formal education is curriculum oriented and will be presented within the public, private and Buddhist school systems. Environmental education will be delivered through various broad learning areas in the curriculum. Competence and morale of teachers, teaching styles, available teaching materials, and the curriculum all need to be taken into consideration.
The Ministry of Environment and the Ministry of Education Youth and Sports, initiated an Inter ministerial Committee for the Integration of Environmental Education in primary and secondary schools in August 1991. The established committee outlined the following strategy to integrate environmental education in Cambodia:
Besides this nationally oriented strategy, local NGO's are contributing
to teacher education in this area. Australian Catholic Relief (ACR) is designing and
implementing teacher training courses at the community level (mainly in Takeo province),
with an environmental oriented emphasis.
Environmental Quality Management - Finding Solutions
Air Quality and Noise Prevention
To date there are no laws nor regulations in Cambodia regarding control of air pollution
or noise prevention and there is no measurement of the level of these pollutants. The
Ministry of Environment is in the process of drafting an environmental law which includes
air and noise pollution. Standards need to be enforced which will safeguard human health
and the environment.
There are relatively few stationary sources-power plants and factories etc., or mobile sources-cars and buses of air pollution in Cambodia. Currently, in Cambodia, the main cause of air pollution is dust from damaged (unpaved) urban roads and diesel generator exhaust. There are relatively few power plants, factories or cars contributing significant amounts of pollution.
Other sources of air pollution include emissions of toxic gases from waste rotting by the roadside and the emission of volatile organic carbon such as benzene, toluene and vinyl chloride from badly built fuel stations.
As the industrial sector develops, the sources of air pollutants will inevitably increase. Such pollutants need to be controlled and monitored. Already there are estimated to be 66 factories and 1,282 small production businesses in Phnom Penh City, (tire production, tire repair, shoe production, paint production, compressed air, phosphate fertilisers, batteries, rubber tubing, soap, mechanics, papers, construction, materials) using old equipment and operating without any environmental controls.
Industries and other small production facilities emit gases such as nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2) and ozone (O3) from fossil fuel combustion. Toxic chemical gases (H2, SO2 etc.) are also emitted by tire and paint production factories.
The main sources of noise pollution are engine noise from generators and
motorcycles. The absence of a reliable electricity supply through the urban grid has
resulted in the widespread use of generators in hotels, guest houses, restaurants,
business offices and private houses. Engine noise is of particular concern where
generators are located in close proximity to private residences. Inadequate housing for
the generators and lack of noise baffles have had this a major source of noise pollution.
Until the electricity supply can be substantially improved the most practical approach to
reducing noise levels is through the erection of noise barriers between properties, the
installation of mufflers with high capacity to reduce engine noise and the relocation of
generators to places which cause less conflict between neighbours. High standards need to
be set for noise suppression in mufflers of imported motor cycles.
Climate Changes
The increase in the release of certain gases, termed greenhouse gases or (GHG's), into the
atmosphere are believed to be contributing to global warming. The main greenhouse gases
are: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and chlorofluorocarbons. The
main cause of the increase of CO2 into the atmosphere are the human activities of the
burning of fossil fuels energy and deforestation. In comparison with other countries,
fossil fuels use in Cambodia is minimal, however, this is set to increase rapidly in line
with the increase in energy demand which will accompany development. In time Cambodia is
expected to become a signatory to the United Nations Convention on Climate Change. While
this Convention is more lenient towards developing countries such as Cambodia, it requires
them to prepare a national inventory of atmospheric emission by sources and to formulate
programs to mitigate climate change.
Of particular interest, is the role Cambodia's forest could play in global warming abatement. Standing forests sequester CO2, while the cutting of trees release CO2 into the atmosphere. Considering forest cover in Cambodia's at 11 million ha and assuming 150 tonnes of carbon per ha, Cambodia's forests sequester at least 1.6 billion tons of carbon. If annual deforestation is taken at 100,000 ha per year, this would account for the release of 15 million tons of carbon per year. Cambodia's forests therefore represent a valuable store of carbon. The world can benefit greatly from retaining Cambodia's forest as one of the largest remaining carbon sink in the region. The release of this store of carbon have the reverse affect and would contribute to global climatic changes.
In addition, another source of CO2 emission is the burning of solid
waste domestics (not recycle, not separated residues), crop harvest residues (hay, straw)
which are common practice in Cambodia.
Water Quality Management
Cambodia does not have a national water management policy to address the multi sectoral
interests of water use. The lack of sufficient water for both irrigation and domestic use
is considered to be the most pressing problem in many areas.
Deterioration of surface and ground water quality is expected to occur near urban areas through the disposal of domestic waste water into freshwater bodies. Industrial waste water disposal could also cause problems in the future because no pollution standards presently exist in Cambodia.
Data pertaining to water quality is very limited. The Mekong River Secretariat has been monitoring water quality in the mainstream and major tributaries of Mekong river in Thailand, Laos and Vietnam for a number of years. However, water quality monitoring started only recently in Cambodia, some data exists from August 1993. Water samples have been taken from 4 locations in the mainstream of the Mekong River, Bassac River and Tonle Sap Lake. No data is available for the tributaries. Heavy metals and pesticides have not been measured. The maximum level of total suspended solids at the four sampling points in Mekong river during August and September (rainy season) 1993 was 546 mg/l. A part from the suspended sediment load, the water quality of the Mekong River is regarding as satisfactory for aquatic life.
An analysis of four water samples taken from Battembang river (Sanker river) in July 1993, measured total suspended solids to be between 1,358 and 2,757 mg/l. The water samples were taken manually, at the surface. This allows only tentative conclusions to be made about the comparison of this measurement with the measurements made in 1962 and 1963 which measured total suspended solids to be between only 85 and 586 mg/l in July 1963. This dramatic increase in total suspended solids is believed to be the result of gem mining near Pailin mountain in the upper reaches of Battambang or Sanker River.
Waste water and sewage systems in Phnom Penh and other municipalities are extremely poor. The sewage system has not been maintained over the past 2 decades and is in a state of complete disrepair with 80% of the piping damaged. Drain water mixes with drinking water with obvious health implications. Diarrhoeal diseases are common throughout Cambodia and cholera outbreaks occur frequently.
Most sewage and waste water, in Cambodia, is drained by open channels or into ponds which are in close contact with people. Large cities such as Phnom Penh and Battambang are partly serviced by combined sewage and storm water drainage systems i.e. both foul water and storm-water flows are removed by the same pipe network. These systems were constructed 25-45 years ago and consist of pour flush or conventional flush toilets, sometimes draining to a septic tank. Large solids are held by the septic tanks and sewage water flows to the street culverts to mix with rain water run off. Combined sewage and storm water drainage street culverts do not discharge to treatment systems.
Phnom Penh's sewage network consists of about 125,000 m of concrete piping ranging in size from 30 cm to 150 cm in diameter. As a result of block sewers and the non availability of drains nearly the entire city of Phnom Penh floods when it rains. The depth of the flooding is estimated to vary between 5 and 30 cm. A study of Beng Salang Drainage Basin, in 1990, concluded that the drainage system does not function properly because damage and blockage of pipes have substantially reduced its capacity and because the construction of the sewer is below acceptable standards. The irregular invert slopes of the sewers causes grit to settle in the drains which are difficult to remove. The depth of the grit and sludge deposition varies between 0.25 m and 0.60 m in the 1.0 m diameter pipe.
Currently, the municipality has initiated an active program of clearing and upgrading the sewers. The water supply facilities in Phnom Penh are not in good condition. Broken pipes and the insufficient capacity of the distribution network limit the provision of water. Consumers install a pump in the house connection to lift the water into the houses. Water is accordingly supplied either from pumping from the distribution network into a ground or roof reservoir or by gravity to the ground reservoir or concrete well. Ground water will infiltrate the network at times when pumping creates a negative pressure, in the pipes at times of no flow. The ground water is often heavily polluted because of seepage from the drains and septic tanks.
Because of lack of electric generating capacity, pumping at the cities pumping station stops at night. There is a transfer of polluted supplies from the sewers to the reticulated drinking system, at night, through poor connections and numerous points of leakage. This occurs when differential pressures between the two piped systems create a flow path.
Limited statistical information indicates that polluted water supplies
combined with the existing low level of environmental hygiene, is a major, as well as
secondary cause of morbidity and mortality in Cambodia.
Solid Waste Management
Due to an undeveloped industrial sector and absence of high consumer consumption in
Cambodia, solid waste generation in generally, is not high. However, most urban areas
already have a very significant waste disposal problem which can be expected to worsen as
the population increases and the industrial sector grows. Management of solid wastes is on
the whole poorly managed and piles of rubbish in open spaces are common.
There are a number of environmental hazards associated with the poor solid waste management currently being practised, these include:
Solid Waste Management in Phnom Penh
Solid Waste Management in Battambang Province
At present there appears to be no substantial sources of industrial waste. Glass, metals, paper and higher grade plastics are either re-used by the consumer or destined for the recycling industry.
The majority of households collect waste in a basked or similar container within their property and dispose of it by: burning, burial or dumping on: the river bank, empty plots ponds, roads sides or drainage channels. As the density of the town increases these alternative disposal techniques will become progressively less appropriate and the centralised collection and disposal system will have to be expanded.
Most market owners charge a fee to their tenants for solid waste
disposal. The main market in the centre of the town has wooden bins (capacity
approximately 2 m3). These bins are emptied manually on a daily basis and loaded into a
tractor trailer. For disposal, they are transported to a 3 ha landfill site, far from the
town.
Toxic and Hazardous Waste Management
Toxic wastes are by-products of manufacturing or other industrial processes, which, if
released into the environment, are considered poisonous to plant or animal life. Hazardous
wastes, when improperly managed, are substances which, because of their quantity,
concentration, physical, or chemical or infectious characteristics, can be dangerous or
hazardous to public health. Because of this environmental danger posed if released
untreated to air, water or soil, both toxic and hazardous wastes, require carefully
developed and specialised control mechanisms. Appropriate management of toxic and
hazardous wastes involves the concept of control from the "cradle to the grave"
of such substances. This includes the facilities and locations where they are
manufactured, transported, used, stored, treated and disposed. The treatment systems
depend on separation of wastes into organic and inorganic components.
Organic wastes are incinerated at a high heat. Inorganic wastes are treated by technical or physical processes, dried, and then encapsulated in an inert material prior to final disposal in the landfill. Specially lined landfills are required to prevent any leachate from leaving the disposal site either in surface drainage or from infiltration to ground water.
As yet, Cambodia has no specialised treatment or disposal sites for toxic or hazardous wastes. There are no existing rules or criteria for generation, transporting, and otherwise handling these wastes. Waste load sources and amounts have not been formally inventoried quantitatively. Sources can be expected to include acid and heavy metals from vehicle batteries, vehicle crank case oil, diesel fuel, gasoline, pesticides, and pesticides containers, solvents and other metal cleaners. It is feasible that these types of wastes are being released into the air, water and soil resources to such an extent as to cause undocumented environmental damage.
Of these, ground water contamination from such wastes is the most difficult to control. Consequently, large volumes of waste may be disposed locally to ground water posing risks to the users of the contaminated ground water supply. Extraction and treatment of the wastes, once diluted in ground water, are technically difficult and always expensive.
Uncertainty of present production and disposal of toxic and hazardous
wastes, in Cambodia, argue for timely inventory and monitoring activities to provide a
base of knowledge for designing management controls. Temporary measures of control such as
storage of the wastes, at their source of origin, may be the only practical approach,
until a cradle to grave management system is put into place. The importance of toxic or
hazardous wastes should be prohibited.
Land Mines
Land mines are a form of enduring and lethal environmental pollution representing one of
the serious obstacles in Cambodia. Land mines are weapons which, as they are now made,
have remained a danger to life and limb for the last two generations. A variety of land
mines have been used by combatants in Cambodia war. There are an estimated 7 to 10 million
land mines indiscriminately laid in many parts of the country.
In terms of the number of mines per person, number of amputees or total number of mines, Cambodia is often cited as the most heavily mined country in the world. The human, social and economic impact of land mines on a single individual, on his family, the community and finally on the whole nation are cumulative. It can be seen that this is one of the most severe and intractable problems that Cambodians face today.
Land mines are a man-made disaster, a man-made pollution rendering vast lands unusable. Land is most needed for the settlement of refugees and the resettlement of displaced persons to their homelands and home villages, as well as for cultivation and development projects. Whole communities are impoverished by land mines because their presence denies them the resources they need to survive day to day. Shelter, food, water and heat are denied to thousands by mines in villages, rice fields, water holes and forestry. The land mine casualty rate is closely linked with the need for resources.
Land mines have killed and maimed tens of thousands of Cambodians. It is
now estimated that there are between 30,000 and 40,000 amputee victims of land mines, the
biggest group being aged 20 to 30, and 90% of these victims are males who are among the
most economically active population. The injury and death of a cow or a buffalo,
economically, is also a very serious matter.
Mine Clearance in Cambodia
The effort to clear Cambodia of mines started in 1990. Currently the following
organisations are involved in mines clearance in Cambodia: CMAC (the Cambodian Mines
Action Centre), HALO Trust, MAG (the Mines Advisory Group) and COFRAS (Compagnies
Françaises d'Assistance Spécialiste). To date more than 40,000 mines have been found and
destroyed by CMAC and other NGO's. More importantly approximately 10 million square meters
of formerly mined land has been returned to the community.
Cambodia's Emerging Environmental Policy Framework and Recommendations
Despite the critical situation regarding land mines, Cambodia's overall state of
environment is in very good shape. This is not to underrate the seriousness of the
problems related to deforestation, degradation of the Tonle Sap, and effects of the placer
mining. However, in relative standing, Cambodia enjoys some distinct advantages over its
neighbours in having maintained the integrity of its resource base.
The problem for Cambodia is that the same internal unrest that served to protect the environment over the past twenty years also eradicated the country's institutions and human resource base that are now needed to manage the natural resources on a sustained basis. It is not necessary here to recall the painful recent history of Cambodia. The civil institutions were systematically destroyed, leaving the rebuilding of a functioning country from ground zero, including the re-establishment of the role of law. In addition, it should be kept in mind that the protection of the environment, both as a discipline and as an area of government intervention is a new discipline in most developing countries. It is, therefore, not surprising that the present Cambodian Government is lacking such capabilities.
Governments have often approached environmental management through a revision and realignment of sectoral policies, in the field of natural resources. Further sophistication is achieved through the co-ordination of the various sectoral policies, with a view to formulating and implementing an integrated policy for the protection of the environment. This is not the case in Cambodia where sectoral capabilities, from planning to enforcement, will have to be rebuilt at the same time as an institutional framework, for the protection of the environment, is being set up.
While this will require a considerable effort on the part of government, with the assistance of international community, it also has advantages. Sectoral interests and divisions are not well entrenched, at the moment, since the governmental administration is in the process of being formed. In other words, the flexibility of the Cambodian government to write new policies and laws, that pertain to integrated environmental and resource management, is at its maximum. The condition is clean, but in a relatively short time laws and regulations and a general system of resource management will have been devised. It is extremely important, therefore, that this be accomplished the right way. This will prevent the necessity to modify or revise a badly built system of environmental and natural resource management.
In this regard, it is fortunate that the protection of the environment has been given a high profile from the very beginning of the new government. The King has always been a keen defender of the natural patrimony of Cambodia and this has considerably raised the awareness of environmental related issues both in Cambodia and abroad.
The growth of the economy and the economic development of the country is a national priority for Cambodia. This process has begun. Cambodia is, and will be for the next twenty years at least, a gigantic construction site as the much needed infrastructure is being built. This will, no doubt, have a considerable, and to some extent destructive, impact on the environment. Exploration and exploitation of natural resources will take place, and a wood processing industry will be set up with the blessing of the Government. Cities, airports and industrial sites will be built, and there will be a push to expand agricultural land at the expense of the forests. If the Cambodian Government can achieve this in a stable and peaceful environment, it will likely receive the support of financial institutions such as the World Bank and other international banks, whose support is essential to international investors' confidence.
The task of governmental authorities, charged with environmental protection, should not be seen as an obstacle to economic growth but rather as a partner in promoting sustainable development and ensuring that the natural resources that provide the basis for the economic growth, in the first place, are sustainably managed.
The task of the Ministry of Environment is not to control the activities of the sectoral ministries but to assist the various sectors in their task, which is to develop the country with minimum destructive impact on the environment and traditional social structures. The patterns of economic development and the consequential impact on the natural resource base can be divided into external pressures related to international consumption and those that arise as an internal or domestic dynamic.
The need to earn foreign exchange is very acute in a cash-strapped economy such as Cambodia's. For the moment, much of Cambodia's ability to pay for essential imports rest on the exploitation of its natural resources in the form of raw materials, which is the least profitable for the Cambodian economy. The export of logs, unprocessed gems, gold, and rubber are the clearest illustrations. In spite of this, the Cambodian Government has made the courageous decision to continue the ban on exports of logs, as well as, the moratorium on mining and export of gems, thus sacrificing short term revenues for longer term gains. With this policy in place, largely out of concern for environmental protection, any ensuing problems, i.e. the illegal export of logs, illegal gem mining and even the illegal export of fish fingerlings, derive primarily from lack of enforcement capabilities rather that a "no-policy" decision on the part of the government.
Internal pressures and dynamics, on the other hand, have led to a more gradual but significant erosion of the resource base as described in the first section of this paper. The need to increase agricultural productivity, one of the lowest in Asia, will lead to increased use and misuse of pesticides, which in turn, will threaten aquatic and human life. Demand for fuel wood, estimated at present at 6 to 8 million m3 per year, will increase as long as cheap and reliable alternative sources of fuel are not available domestically. Siltation of the rivers and the Tonle Sap, as a result of the gem mining and deforestation of the flooded forest, further affects the viability and productivity of the domestic fisheries industry.
Cambodia does not currently have the ability to plan its economic or social development, as a function of its natural resource base. Planning for the sustainable development and management of natural resources will require five basic elements:
Of these five, only the first has been addressed and only in a limited fashion. An essential tool for policy planning is an accurate assessment of the resource base as well as the state of the environment.
Currently, the Ministry of Environment is in the process of elaborating
on an integrated environment policy and identifying priority areas for action. There are
perhaps 3 priority areas that should be highlighted as they represent the major mechanisms
for the long-term protection of the country's environment.
Environmental Legislation and Regulations
It has been noted a number of times that there are no laws, regulations, or standards for
managing the environment and use of natural resources. There is, of course, a relationship
between the development of policies and legislation, which must proceed in a step-wise
fashion. Despite the current weak enforcement capacity, an up to date legislative and
regulatory framework is an indispensable tool to define the boundaries of environmental
management. Such a framework would provide concise laws, to signal the government's
resolve to the public and private investors alike and thus deter those who would infringe
on the law in the absence of strict enforcement.
Adherence to international treaties regarding the protection of the
environment, both on land and in the maritime zones under national jurisdiction is an
essential step as they provide overall guidelines for national legislation. The body of
international law in environment is now very large. These treaties provide member
countries with an international forum where their national concerns can be voiced.
Jurisprudence and customary law has now been built in a significant way and may provide
countries with a recourse procedure in case of damage or threat of damage to the
environment, resulting from the action of another country. The transport of hazardous
wastes is a good example since Cambodia is already targeted as a dumping ground.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
To date, there are no mechanisms in Cambodia for screening the feasibility of development
projects. While private investment in Cambodia is, in general cautious, some significant
projects are under discussion. Considering the investment needed in tandem with
development, aid is set to increase rapidly.
The environmental consequences of projects, in areas such as land use, fishing, irrigation, hydroelectric power, infrastructure, industrial and chemical plants, waste management and disposal, will be far reaching. Unless these and other activities are undertaken with fore-knowledge of likely impacts, environmental quality, and therefore sustainable development, will be put at risk. EIA is a crucial tool in environmental management and planning and needs to be developed and implemented, as an integral part of the feasibility study of any project. The development and use of EIA will require the co-operation of the many ministries whose activities affect the environment, and is therefore an important mechanism through which inter-ministerial co-ordination can be forged. It offers government an important insight into the wider environmental and social costs of programs, policies and plans, and therefore gives guidance to which development path might be most sustainable for Cambodia. Some of the constraints of the implementation of EIA in Cambodia include, a general:
For sustainable development in Cambodia, the shortcoming mentioned above have to be removed. Beside the process of environmental impact assessment should:
The reports provide useful information and recommendations on: assessing
the social aspects of environmental change; assessing cumulative and regional impacts and
strategic assessment and; improving public participation in assessment process and
improving the public inquiry process.
Environmental Education, Training and Public Awareness
Many people in Cambodia do not understand the close ties between human activities and the
environment because they have inaccurate or insufficient information. There is a need to
increase people's sensitivity to, and involvement in, finding solutions for environmental
and developmental problems. Education can give people the environmental awareness, values
and attitudes, skills and behaviour needed to explain not only the physical and biological
environment, but the socio-economic environment and human development. Basic education is
the underpinning for environment and development education, the nation should seek to:
The government needs a flexible and adaptable work force, equipped to meet growing environment and development problems, and changes during the transition to a sustainable society. Therefore, the Ministry of Environment should:
Conclusions
The Ministry of Environment has been created to advise and co-ordinate issues relating to
the environment, and reflects the genuine concern of the government for the environment.
However, it will be a long time before it becomes fully operational. Some constraints
facing the Ministry of Environment include:
These problems can be seen as representative of the challenges facing all institutions, whether they be national, international, public or private involved in environmental management. Yet, they will need to be resolved if Cambodia's current efforts and emerging policies pertaining to the environment are to have any success in sustaining its unique and rich environmental heritage and assets.
References
Dr. Ung Phyrun is currently Deputy General Director of the State Secretariat for the Environment, Phnom Penh City, Cambodia. He is a doctor of medicine, and has worked in the epidemiology (preventive) and the radiology and echotomography departments. He attended a workshop for integrated pest management in rice in South and Southeast Asia, and participated in a study tour of Indonesia, earlier in 1994.